Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay

â€Å"Pre-Socratic† is the expression commonly used to describe those Greek thinkers who lived and wrote between 600 and 400 B.C. It was the Pre-Socratics who attempted to find universal principles which would explain the natural world from its origins to man’s place in it. Although Socrates died in 399 B.C., the term â€Å"Pre-Socratic† indicates not so much a chronological limit, but rather an outlook or range of interests, an outlook attacked by both Protagoras (a Sophist) and Socrates, because natural philosophy was worthless when compared with the search for the â€Å"good life.†To give the Pre-Socratic thinkers their full due would require an article of encyclopedic scope. Given that, I have decided to list a number of sites on individual Pre-Socratic thinkers.Anaximander1. Life and SourcesThe history of written Greek philosophy starts with Anaximander of Miletus in Asia Minor, a fellow-citizen of Thales. He was the first who dared to write a treatise in prose, which has been called traditionally On Nature. This book has been lost, although it probably was available in the library of the Lyceum at the times of Aristotle and his successor Theophrastus. It is said that Apollodorus, in the second century BCE, stumbled upon a copy of it, perhaps in the famous library of Alexandria. Recently, evidence has appeared that it was part of the collection of the library of Taormina in Sicily, where a fragment of a catalogue has been found, on which Anaximander’s name can be read. Only one fragment of the book has come down to us, quoted by Simplicius (after Theophrastus), in the sixth century AD. It is perhaps the most famous and most discussed phrase in the history of philosophy.We also know very little of Anaximander’s life. He is said to have led a mission that founded a colony called Apollonia on the coast of the Black Sea. He also probably introduced the gnomon (a perpendicular sun-dial) into Greece and erected one in Sparta. So he seems to have been a much-traveled man, which is not astonishing, as the Milesians were known to be audacious sailors. It is also reported that he displayed solemn manners and wore pompous garments. Most of the information on Anaximander comes from Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus, whose book on the history of philosophy was used, excerpted, and quoted by many other authors, the so-called doxographers, before it was lost. Sometimes, in these texts words or expressions appear that can with some certainty be ascribed  to Anaximander himself. Relatively many testimonies, approximately one third of them, have to do with astronomical and cosmological questions. Hermann Diels and Walter Kranz have edited the doxography (A) and the existing texts (B) of the Presocratic philosophers in Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Berlin 1951-19526. (A quotation like â€Å"DK 12A17†³ means: â€Å"Diels/Kranz, Anaximander, doxographical report no.17†³).| 2. The â€Å"Boundless† as Principle According to Aristotle and Theophrastus, the first Greek philosophers were looking for the â€Å"origin† or â€Å"principle† (the Greek word â€Å"archà ªÃ¢â‚¬  has both meanings) of all things. Anaximander is said to have identified it with â€Å"the Boundless† or â€Å"the Unlimited† (Greek: â€Å"apeiron,† that is, â€Å"that which has no boundaries†). Already in ancient times, it is complained that Anaximander did not explain what he meant by â€Å"the Boundless.† More recently, authors have disputed whether the Boundless should be interpreted as spatially or temporarily without limits, or perhaps as that which has no qualifications, or as that which is inexhaustible. Some scholars have even defended the meaning â€Å"that which is not experienced,† by relating the Greek word â€Å"apeiron† not to â€Å"peras† (â€Å"boundary,† â€Å"limit†), but to â€Å"perao† (â€Å"to experience,â⠂¬  â€Å"to apperceive†). The suggestion, however, is almost irresistible that Greek philosophy, by making the Boundless into the principle of all things, has started on a high level of abstraction. On the other hand, some have pointed out that this use of â€Å"apeiron† is atypical for Greek thought, which was occupied with limit, symmetry and harmony. The Pythagoreans placed the boundless (the â€Å"apeiron†) on the list of negative things, and for Aristotle, too, perfection became aligned with limit (Greek: â€Å"peras†), and thus â€Å"apeiron† with imperfection. Therefore, some authors suspect eastern (Iranian) influence on Anaximander’s ideas. Anaximenes (d. 528 BCE) According to the surviving sources on his life, Anaximenes flourished in the mid 6th century BCE and died around 528. He is the third philosopher of the Milesian School of philosophy, so named because like Thales and Anaximander, Anaximenes was an inhabitant of Miletus, in Ionia (ancient Greece). Theophrastus notes that Anaximenes was an associate, and possibly a student, of Anaximander’s. Anaximenes is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. In this way, he differed with his predecessors like Thales, who held that water is the source of all things, and Anaximander, who thought that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff. 2. Doctrine of Change Given his doctrine that all things are composed of air, Anaximenes suggested an interesting qualitative account of natural change: [Air] differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these. (DK13A5) Influence on later Philosophy Anaximenes’ theory of successive change of matter by rarefaction and condensation was influential in later theories. It is developed by Heraclitus (DK22B31), and criticized by Parmenides (DK28B8.23-24, 47-48). Anaximenes’ general theory of how the materials of the world arise is adopted by Anaxagoras(DK59B16), even though the latter has a very different theory of matter. Both Melissus (DK30B8.3) and Plato (Timaeus 49b-c) see Anaximenes’ theory as providing a common-sense explanation of change. Diogenes of Apollonia makes air the basis of his explicitly monistic theory. The Hippocratic treatise On Breaths uses air as the central concept in a theory of diseases. By providing cosmological accounts with a theory of change, Anaximenes separated them from the realm of mere speculation and made them, at least in conception, scientific theories capable of testing. Thales of Miletus (c. 620 BCE – c. 546 BCE) The ancient Greek philosopher Thales was born in Miletus in Greek Ionia. Aristotle, the major source for Thales’s philosophy and science, identified Thales as the first person to investigate the basic principles, the question of the originating substances of matter and, therefore, as the founder of the school of natural philosophy. Thales was interested in almost everything, investigating almost all areas of knowledge, philosophy, history, science, mathematics, engineering, geography, and politics. He  proposed theories to explain many of the events of nature, the primary substance, the support of the earth, and the cause of change. Thales was much involved in the problems of astronomy and provided a number of explanations of cosmological events which traditionally involved supernatural entities. His questioning approach to the understanding of heavenly phenomena was the beginning of Greek astronomy. Thales’ hypotheses were new and bold, and in freeing phenomena from godly intervention, he paved the way towards scientific endeavor. He founded the Milesian school of natural philosophy, developed the scientific method, and initiated the first western enlightenment. A number of anecdotes is closely connected to Thales’ investigations of the cosmos. When considered in association with his hypotheses they take on added meaning and are most enlightening. Thales was highly esteemed in ancient times, and a letter cited by Diogenes Laertius, and purporting to be from Anaximenes to Pythagoras, advised that all our discourse should begin with a reference to Thales (D.L. II.4). 1. The Writings of Thales Doubts have always existed about whether Thales wrote anything, but a number of ancient reports credit him with writings. Simplicius (Diels, Dox. p. 475) specifically attributed to Thales authorship of the so-called Nautical Star-guide. Diogenes Laertius raised doubts about authenticity, but wrote that ‘according to others [Thales] wrote nothing but two treatises, one On the Solstice and one On the Equinox‘ (D.L. I.23). Lobon of Argus asserted that the writings of Thales amounted to two hundred lines (D.L. I.34), and Plutarch associated Thales with opinions and accounts expressed in verse (Plutarch, De Pyth. or. 18. 402 E). Hesychius, recorded that ‘[Thales] wrote on celestial matters in epic verse, on the equinox, and much else’ (DK, 11A2). Callimachus credited Thales with the sage advice that navigators should navigate by Ursa Minor (D.L. I.23), advice which may have been in writing. Diogenes mentions a poet, Choerilus, who declared that ‘[Thales] was the first to maintain the immortality of the soul’ (D.L. I.24), and in De Anima, Aristotle’s words ‘from what is recorded about [Thales]‘, indicate that Aristotle was working from a written source. Diogenes recorded that  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ[Thales] seems by some accounts to have been the first to study astronomy, the first to predict eclipses of the sun and to fix the solstices; so Eudemus in his History of Astronomy. It was this which gained for him the admiration of Xenophanes and Herodotus and the notice of Heraclitus and Democritus’ (D.L. I.23). Eudemus who wrote a History of Astronomy, and also on geometry and theology, must be considered as a possible source for the hypotheses of Thales. The information provided by Diogenes is the sort of material which he would have included in his History of Astronomy, and it is possible that the titles On the Solstice, and On the Equinox were a vailable to Eudemus. Xenophanes, Herodotus, Heraclitus and Democritus were familiar with the work of Thales, and may have had a work by Thales available to them. A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the Sun reaches its highest position in the sky as seen from the North or South Pole. The word solstice is derived from the Latin sol (sun) and sistere (to stand still), because at the solstices, the Sun stands still in declination; that is, the seasonal movement of the Sun’s path (as seen from Earth) comes to a stop before reversing direction. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons. In many cultures the solstices mark either the beginning or the midpoint of winter and summer. The term solstice can also be used in a broader sense, as the date (day) when this occurs. The day of the solstice is either the â€Å"longest day of the year† (in summer) or the â€Å"shortest day of the year† (in winter) for any place on Earth, because the length of time between sunrise and sunset on that day is the yearly maximum or minimum for that place. Proclus recorded that Thales was followed by a great wealth of geometers, most of whom remain as honoured names. They commence with Mamercus, who was a pupil of Thales, and include Hippias of Elis, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Philippus of Mende, Euclid, and Eudemus, a friend of Aristotle, who wrote histories of arithmetic, of astronomy, and of geometry, and many lesser known names. It is possible that writings of Thales were available to some of these men. Any records which Thales may have kept would have been an advantage in his own work. This is especially true of mathematics, of the dates and times determined when fixing the solstices, the positions of stars, and in  financial transactions. It is difficult to believe that Thales would not have written down the information he had gathered in his travels, particularly the geometry he investigated in Egypt and his measuring of the height of the pyramid, his hypotheses about nature, and the cause of change. Proclus acknowledged Thales as the discoverer of a number of specific theorems (A Commentary on the First Book of Euclid’s Elements 65. 8-9; 250. 16-17). This suggests that Eudemus, Proclus’s source had before him the written records of Thales’s discoveries. How did Thales ‘prove’ his theorems if not in written words and sketches? The works On the Solstice, On the Equinox, which were attributed to Thales (D.L. I.23), and the ‘Nautical Star guide, to which Simplicius referred, may have been sources for the History of Astronomy of Eudemus (D.L. I.23). Pythagoras (c.570—c.495 BCE) The pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Pythagoras must have been one of the world’s greatest persons, but he wrote nothing, and it is hard to say how much of the doctrine we know as Pythagorean is due to the founder of the society and how much is later development. It is also hard to say how much of what we are told about the life of Pythagoras is trustworthy; for a mass of legend gathered around his name at an early date. Sometimes he is represented as a man of science, and sometimes as a preacher of mystic doctrines, and we might be tempted to regard one or other of those characters as alone historical. The truth is that there is no need to reject either of the traditional views. The union of mathematical genius and mysticism is common enough. Originally from Samos, Pythagoras founded at Kroton (in southern Italy) a society which was at once a religious community and a scientific school. Such a body was bound to excite jealousy and mistrust, and we hear of many struggles. Pythagoras himself had to flee from Kroton to Metapontion, where he died. It is stated that he was a disciple of Anaximander, his astronomy was the natural development of Anaximander’s. Also, the way in which the Pythagorean geometry developed also bears witness to its descent from that of Miletos. The great problem at this date was the duplication of the square, a problem which gave rise to the theorem of the square on the hypotenuse, commonly  known still as the Pythagorean proposition (Euclid, I. 47). If we were right in assuming that Thales worked with the old 3:4:5 triangle, the connection is obvious. Pythagoras argued that there are three kinds of men, just as there are three classes of strangers who come to the Olympic Games. The lowest consists of those who come to buy and sell, and next above them are those who come to compete. Best of all are those who simply come to look on. Men may be classified accordingly as lovers of wisdom, lovers of honor, and lovers of gain. That seems to imply the doctrine of the tripartite soul, which is also attributed to the early Pythagoreans on good authority, though it is common now to ascribe it to Plato. There are, however, clear references to it before his time, and it agrees much better with the general outlook of the Pythagoreans. The comparison of human life to a gathering like the Games was often repeated in later days. Pythagoras also taught the doctrine of Rebirth or transmigration, which we may have learned from the contemporary Orphics. Xenophanes made fun of him for pretending to recognize the voice of a departed friend in the howls of a beaten dog. Empedocles seems to be referring to him when he speaks of a man who could remember what happened ten or twenty generations before. It was on this that the doctrine of Recollection, which plays so great a part in Plato, was based. The things we perceive with the senses, Plato argues, remind us of things we knew when the soul was out of the body and could perceive reality directly. There is more difficulty about the cosmology of Pythagoras. Hardly any school ever professed such reverence for its founder’s authority as the Pythagoreans. ‘The Master said so’ was their watchword. On the other hand, few schools have shown so much capacity for progress and for adapting themselves to new conditions. Pythagoras started from the cosmical system of Anaximenes. Aristotle tells us that the Pythagoreans represented the world as inhaling ‘air’ form the boundless mass outside it, and this ‘air’ is identified with ‘the unlimited’. When, however, we come to the process by which things are developed out of the ‘unlimited’, we observe a great change. We hear nothing more of ‘separating out’ or even of rarefaction and condensation. Instead of that we have the theory that what gives form to the  Unlimited is the Limit. That is the great contribution of Pythagoras to philosophy, and we must try to understand it. Now the function of the Limit is usually illustrated from the arts of music and medicine, and we have seen how important these two arts were for Pythagoreans, so it is natural to infer that the key to its meaning is to be found in them. It may be taken as certain that Pythagoras himself discovered the numerical ratios which determine the concordant intervals of the musical scale. Similar to musical intervals, in medicine there are opposites, such as the hot and the cold, the wet and the dry, and it is the business of the physician to produce a proper ‘blend’ of these in the human body. In a well-known passage of Plato’s Phaedo (86 b) we are told by Simmias that the Pythagoreans held the body to be strung like an instrument to a certain pitch, hot and cold, wet and dry taking the place of high and low in music. Musical tuning and health are alike means arising from the application of Limit to the Unlimited. It was natural for Pythagoras to look for something of the same kind in the world at large. Briefly stated, the doctrine of Pythagoras was that all things are numbers. In certain fundamental cases, the early Pythagoreans represented numbers and explained their properties by means of dots arrang ed in certain ‘figures’ or patterns. Zeno’s Paradoxes In the fifth century B.C.E., Zeno of Elea offered arguments that led to conclusions contradicting what we all know from our physical experience–that runners run, that arrows fly, and that there are many different things in the world. The arguments were paradoxes for the ancient Greek philosophers. Because most of the arguments turn crucially on the notion that space and time are infinitely divisible—for example, that for any distance there is such a thing as half that distance, and so on—Zeno was the first person in history to show that the concept of infinity is problematical. In his Achilles Paradox, Achilles races to catch a slower runner–for example, a tortoise that is crawling away from him. The tortoise has a head start, so if Achilles hopes to overtake it, he must run at least to the place where the tortoise presently is, but by the time he arrives there, it will have crawled to a new place, so then Achilles must run to this new place, but the  tortoise meanwhile will have crawled on, and so forth. Achilles will never catch the tortoise, says Zeno. Therefore, good reasoning shows that fast runners never can catch slow ones. So much the worse for the claim that motion really occurs, Zeno says in defense of his mentor Parmenides who had argued that motion is an illusion. Although practically no scholars today would agree with Zeno’s conclusion, we can not escape the paradox by jumping up from our seat and chasing down a tortoise, nor by saying Achilles should run to some other target place ahead of where the tortoise is at the moment. What is required is an analysis of Zeno’s own argument that does not get us embroiled in new paradoxes nor impoverish our mathematics and science. This article explains his ten known paradoxes and considers the treatments that have been offered. Zeno assumed distances and durations can be divided into an actual infinity (what we now call a transfinite infinity) of indivisible parts, and he assumed these are too many for the runner to complete. Aristotle‘s treatment said Zeno should have assumed there are only potential infinities, and that neither places nor times divide into indivisible parts. His treatment became the generally accepted solution until the late 19th century. The current standard treatment says Zeno was right to conclude that a runner’s path contains an actual infinity of parts, but he was mistaken to assume this is too many. This treatment employs the apparatus of calculus which has proved its indispensability for the development of modern science. In the twentieth century it finally became clear that disallowing actual infinities, as Aristotle wanted, hampers the growth of set theory and ultimately of mathematics and physics. This standard treatment took hundreds of years to perfect and was due to the flexibility of intellectuals who were willing to replace old theories and their concepts with more fruitful ones, despite the damage done to common sense and our naive intuitions. The article ends by exploring newer treatments of the paradoxes—and related paradoxes such as Thomson’s Lamp Paradox—that were developed since the 1950s. Parmenides (b. 510 BCE) Parmenides was a Greek philosopher and poet, born of an illustrious family about BCE. 510, at Elea in Lower Italy, and is is the chief representative of the Eleatic philosophy. He was held in high esteem by his fellow-citizens for his excellent legislation, to which they ascribed the prosperity and wealth of the town. He was also admired for his exemplary life. A â€Å"Parmenidean life† was proverbial among the Greeks. He is commonly represented as a disciple of Xenophanes. Parmenides wrote after Heraclitus, and in conscious opposition to him, given the evident allusion to Hericlitus: â€Å"for whom it is and is not, the same and not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions† (fr. 6, 8). Little more is known of his biography than that he stopped at Athens on a journey in his sixty-fifth year, and there became acquainted with the youthful Socrates. That must have been in the middle of the fifth century BCE., or shortly after it. Parmenides broke with the older Ionic prose tradition by writing in hexameter verse. His didactic poem, called On Nature, survives in fragments, although the Proem (or introductory discourse) of the work has been preserved. Parmenides was a young man when he wrote it, for the goddess who reveals the truth to him addresses him as â€Å"youth.† The work is considered inartistic. Its Hesiodic style was appropriate for the cosmogony he describes in the second part, but is unsuited to the arid dialectic of the first. Parmenides was no born poet, and we must ask what led him to take this new departure. The example of Xenophanes’ poetic writings is not a complete explanation; for the poetry of Parmenides is as unlike that of Xenophanes as it well can be, and his style is more like Hesiod and the Orphics. In the Proem Parmenides describes his ascent to the home of the goddess who is supposed to speak the remainder of the verses; this is a reflexion of the conventional ascents i nto heaven which were almost as common as descents into hell in the apocalyptic literature of those days. The Proem opens with Parmenides representing himself as borne on a chariot and attended by the Sunmaidens who have quitted the Halls of Night to guide him on his journey. They pass along the highway till they come to the Gate of Night and Day, which is locked and barred. The key is in the keeping of Dike (Right), the Avenger, who is persuaded to unlock it by the Sunmaidens.  They pass in through the gate and are now, of course, in the realms of Day. The goal of the journey is the palace of a goddess who welcomes Parmenides and instructs him in the two ways, that of Truth and the deceptive way of Belief, in which is no truth at all. All this is described without inspiration and in a purely conventional manner, so it must be interpreted by the canons of the apocalyptic style. It is clearly meant to indicate that Parmenides had been converted, that he had passed from error (night) to truth (day), and the Two Ways must represent his former error and the truth which is now revealed to h im. There is reason to believe that the Way of Belief is an account of Pythagorean cosmology. In any case, it is surely impossible to regard it as anything else than a description of some error. The goddess says so in words that cannot be explained away. Further, this erroneous belief is not the ordinary man’s view of the world, but an elaborate system, which seems to be a natural development the Ionian cosmology on certain lines, and there is no other system but the Pythagorean that fulfils this requirement. To this it has been objected that Parmenides would not have taken the trouble to expound in detail a system he had altogether rejected, but that is to mistake the character of the apocalyptic convention. It is not Parmenides, but the goddess, that expounds the system, and it is for this reason that the beliefs described are said to be those of ‘mortals’. Now a description of the ascent of the soul would be quite incomplete without a picture of the region from which it had escaped. The goddess must reveal the two ways at the parting of which Parmenides stands, and bid him choose the better. The rise of mathematics in the Pythagorean school had revealed for the first time the power of thought. To the mathematician of all men it is the same thing that can be thought and that can be, and this is the principle from which Parmenides starts. It is impossible to think what is not, and it is impossible for what cannot be thought to be. The great question, Is it or is it not? is therefore equivalent to the question, Can it be thought or not? In any case, the work thus has two divisions. The first discusses the truth, and the second the world of illusion — that is, the world of the senses and the erroneous opinions of mankind founded upon them. In his opinion truth  lies in the perception that existence is, and error in the idea that non-existence also can be. Nothing can have real existence but what is conceivable; therefore to be imagined and to be able to exist are the same thing, and there is no development. The essence of what is conceivable is incapable of development, imperishable, immutable, unbounded, and indivisible. What is various and mutable, all development, is a delusive phantom. Perception is thought directed to the pure essence of being; the phenomenal world is a delusion, and the opinions formed concerning it can only be improbable. Parmenides goes on to consider in the light of this principle the consequences of saying that anything is. In the first place, it cannot have come into being. If it had, it must have arisen from nothing or from something. It cannot have arisen from nothing; for there is no nothing. It cannot have arisen from something; for here is nothing else than what is. Nor can anything else besides itself come into being; for there can be no empty space in which it could do so. Is it or is it not? If it is, then it is now, all at once. In this way Parmenides refutes all accounts of the origin of the world. Ex nihilo nihil fit. Further, if it is, it simply is, and it cannot be more or less. There is, therefore, as much of it in one place as in another. (That makes rarefaction and condensation impossible.) it is continuous and indivisible; for there is nothing but itself which could prevent its parts being in contact with one another. It is therefore full, a continuous indivisible plenum. (That is directed against the Pythagorean theory of a discontinuous reality.) Further, it is immovable. If it moved, it must move into empty space, and empty space is nothing, and there is no nothing. Also it is finite and spherical; for it cannot be in one direction any more than in another, and the sphere is the only figure of which this can be said. What is, therefore a finite, spherical, motionless, continuous plenum, and there is nothing beyond it. Coming into being and ceasing to be are mere ‘names’, and so is motion, and still more color and the like. They are not even thoughts; for a thought must be a thought of something that is, and none of these can be. Such is the conclusion to which the view of the real as a single body inevitably leads, and there is no escape from it. The ‘matter’ of our physical text-books is just the real of Parmenides; and, unless we can find room for something else than matter, we are shut up into his account of reality. No subsequent system could afford to ignore this, but of course it was impossible to acquiesce permanently in a doctrine like that of Parmenides. It deprives the world we know of all claim to existence, and reduces it to something which is hardly even an illusion. If we are to give an intelligible account of the world, we must certainly introduce motion again somehow. That can never be taken for granted any more, as it was by the early cosmologists; we must attempt to explain it if we are to escape from the conclusions of Parmenides. Heraclitus (fl. c.500 BCE) A Greek philosopher of the late 6th century BCE, Heraclitus criticizes his predecessors and contemporaries for their failure to see the unity in experience. He claims to announce an everlasting Word (Logos) according to which all things are one, in some sense. Opposites are necessary for life, but they are unified in a system of balanced exchanges. The world itself consists of a law-like interchange of elements, symbolized by fire. Thus the world is not to be identified with any particular substance, but rather with an ongoing process governed by a law of change. The underlying law of nature also manifests itself as a moral law for human beings. Heraclitus is the first Western philosopher to go beyond physical theory in search of metaphysical foundations and moral applications. Anaxagoras (c.500—428 BCE) Anaxagoras of Clazomenae was an important Presocratic natural philosopher and scientist who lived and taught in Athens for approximately thirty years. He gained notoriety for his materialistic views, particularly his contention that the sun was a fiery rock. This led to charges of impiety, and he was sentenced to death by the Athenian court. He avoided this penalty by leaving Athens, and he spent his remaining years in exile. While Anaxagoras proposed theories on a variety of subjects, he is most noted for two theories. First, he speculated that in the physical world everything contains a portion of everything else. His observation of how nutrition works in animals led him to conclude that in order for the food an animal eats to turn into bone,  hair, flesh, and so forth, it must already contain all of those constituents within it. The second theory of significance is Anaxagoras’ postulation of Mind (Nous) as the initiating and governing principle of the cosmos. Democritus ( 460—370 BCE) Democritus was born at Abdera, about 460 BCE, although according to some 490. His father was from a noble family and of great wealth, and contributed largely towards the entertainment of the army of Xerxes on his return to Asia. As a reward for this service the Persian monarch gave and other Abderites presents and left among them several Magi. Democritus, according to Diogenes Laertius, was instructed by these Magi in astronomy and theology. After the death of his father he traveled in search of wisdom, and devoted his inheritance to this purpose, amounting to one hundred talents. He is said to have visited Egypt, Ethiopia, Persia, and India. Whether, in the course of his travels, he visited Athens or studied under Anaxagoras is uncertain. During some part of his life he was instructed in Pythagoreanism, and was a disciple of Leucippus. After several years of traveling, Democritus returned to Abdera, with no means of subsistence. His brother Damosis, however, took him in. According to the law of Abdera, whoever wasted his patrimony would be deprived of the rites of burial. Democritus, hoping to avoid this disgrace, gave public lectures. Petronius relates that he was acquainted with the virtues of herbs, plants, and stones, and that he spent his life in making experiments upon natural bodies. He acquired fame with his knowledge of natural phenomena, and predicted changes in the weather. He used this ability to make people believe that he could predict future events. They not only viewed him as something more than mortal, but even proposed to put him in control of their public affairs. He preferred a contemplative to an active life, and therefore declined these public honors and passed the remainder of his days in solitude. Credit cannot be given to the tale that Democritus spent his leisure hours in chemical researches after the philosopher’s stone — the dream of a later age; or to the story of his conversation with Hippocrates concerning Democritus’s supposed madness, as based on spurious letters. Democritus has been commonly known as â€Å"The Laughing Philosopher,† and it is gravely related  by Seneca that he never appeared in public with out expressing his contempt of human follies while laughing. Accordingly, we find that among his fellow-citizens he had the name of â€Å"the mocker†. He died at more than a hundred years of age. It is said that from then on he spent his days and nights in caverns and sepulchers, and that, in order to master his intellectual faculties, he blinded himself with burning glass. This story, however, is discredited by the writers who mention it insofar as they say he wrote books and dissected animals, neither of which could be done we ll without eyes. Democritus expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus. He maintained the impossibility of dividing things ad infinitum. From the difficulty of assigning a beginning of time, he argued the eternity of existing nature, of void space, and of motion. He supposed the atoms, which are originally similar, to be impenetrable and have a density proportionate to their volume. All motions are the result of active and passive affection. He drew a distinction between primary motion and its secondary effects, that is, impulse and reaction. This is the basis of the law of necessity, by which all things in nature are ruled. The worlds which we see — with all their properties of immensity, resemblance, and dissimilitude — result from the endless multiplicity of falling atoms. The human soul consists of globular atoms of fire, which impart movement to the body. Maintaining his atomic theory throughout, Democritus introduced the hypothesis of images or idols (eidola), a kind of emanation from external objects, which make an impression on our senses, and from the influence of which he deduced sensation (aesthesis) and thought (noesis). He distinguished between a rude, imperfect, and therefore false perception and a true one. In the same manner, consistent with this theory, he accounted for the popular notions of Deity; partly through our incapacity to understand fully the phenomena of which we are witnesses, and partly from the impressions communicated by certain beings (eidola) of enormous stature and resembling the human figure which inhabit the air. We know these from dreams and the causes of divination. He carried his theory into practical philosophy also, laying down that happiness consisted in an even temperament. From this he deduced his moral principles and prudential maxims. It was from Democritus that  Epicurus borrowed the princi pal features of his philosophy. Empedocles (c.492—432 BCE) Empedocles (of Acagras in Sicily) was a philosopher and poet: one of the most important of the philosophers working before Socrates (the Presocratics), and a poet of outstanding ability and of great influence upon later poets such as Lucretius. His works On Nature and Purifications (whether they are two poems or only one – see below) exist in more than 150 fragments. He has been regarded variously as a materialist physicist, a shamanic magician, a mystical theologian, a healer, a democratic politician, a living god, and a fraud. To him is attributed the invention of the four-element theory of matter (earth, air, fire, and water), one of the earliest theories of particle physics, put forward seemingly to rescue the phenomenal world from the static monism of Parmenides. Empedocles’ world-view is of a cosmic cycle of eternal change, growth and decay, in which two personified cosmic forces, Love and Strife, engage in an eternal battle for supremacy. In psychology and ethics Empedocles was a follower of Pythagoras, hence a believer in the transmigration of souls, and hence also a vegetarian. He claims to be a daimà ´n, a divine or potentially divine being, who, having been banished from the immortals gods for ‘three times countless years’ for committing the sin of meat-eating and forced to suffer successive reincarnations in an purificatory journey through the different orders of nature and elements of the cosmos, has now achieved the most perfect of human states and will be reborn as an immortal. He also claims seemingly magical powers including the ability to revive the dead and to control the winds and rains.

Sexism and Film Anaylisis/G.I.Jane

The movie G. I. Jane was written by Daniel Alexander. The film was directed by Ridley Scott and was released in 1997. The film is about a female senator that succeeds in getting a woman, Jordan O’Neil (Demi Moore), into the Navy SEALS training. If women compare favorably with men in a series of test cases, the military will integrate women fully into all branches of the Navy. The female character goes through rigorous training right alongside the men. Everyone expects the woman to fail during the intensive training that a SEAL must complete. O'Neil faces sexism and physical challenges as she struggles to complete the training at the same quality or better than her male counterparts. The film’s title is interesting because it immediately draws attention to the difference between the commonly, known cliche of G. I. Joe to G. I. Jane. The title stands for a woman in the military which is not the norm. The film opening shows the unrest on the subject of fairness to women in the military. Throughout the film, there are scenes discussing the inequality in the military for women. The scene where the senators are discussing selecting a woman and then the scene when O’Neil is selected set a tone for the film showing the unfair manner in which women are treated in the military. Continuing the unfair treatment, the scenes during the basic training and the scene showing how the officers abuse O’Neil reinforce the problems faced by a female in the military. Sexism is a hurdle that any woman in the military must confront. In the film, darkness and dimmed lighting sets a mood where there is some mystery or some violence involved. The director uses one scene that is seen through the eyes of G. I. Jane to give the viewers a real feel for how G. I. Jane sees the world. The scene is where O’Neil fights her Master Chief and features a wide variety of camera angles while focusing in on O’Neil fighting to free her teammates. A climaxing scene in the film is when O’Neil is given the poem â€Å"Self Pity† and is then congratulated by her Master Chief. O'Neil fights back and wins his respect and that of the other trainees. This scene sums up all of the good work and success achieved by O’Neil in the Navy SEALS. In this case, O’Neil has conquered and won the battle of sexism facing women in the military. O’Neil has proven she has the physical strength to compete with the men. The film shows that sexism is unnecessary, but unfortunately will probably exist forever. In this movie, sexism is thrown out the door as Demi Moore’s role in the movie proves sexism is outdated. The film shows that adversity can be overcome. Another piece of literature that has a similar theme is A Jury of Her Peers that deals with women being under appreciated. In the short story, a country attorney speaks with sarcasm to women and pokes fun at the women for occupying themselves with little things while the men were investigating a murder. All the while, the men were missing the details and clues that would help explain what happened during the murder. In this story and in the movie G. I. Jane, men underestimate what women are capable of accomplishing.

Our Bodies, Our Technologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Our Bodies, Our Technologies - Essay Example A correlation persists between the evolution of life and the technological evolution. Life evolved from the genetic material the DNA and the RNA which are prevalent in all life forms, in the similar manner as computers are the spine of the information system. As a rule of the evolution process the initial phases takes time but advances acquire the faster pace, which could be witnessed in both the forms of the evolution. As the selection of the software is individuals choice, it could be correlated with the 23000 genes present inside the body which could be switched off or on depending upon the requirement and aids in combating major diseases as well as aging process. Every disease has got something to do with the gene or its expression, understanding the mechanism of genetic expression dreaded diseases like cancer, heart attacks, neurological disorders, diabetes etc could be resolved prior to their advancing stages (The Human Machine Merger: Why We Will Spend Most of Our Time in Virt ual Reality in the Twenty-first Century; Our Bodies, Our Technologies: Ray Kurzweil). Technical knowledge paves the way to bring innovation. Rob Freitas has designed nanorobotic RBCs which could enhance the potential of an individual, Research is on the way to make computers work faster than human brain! (Our Bodies, Our Technologies: Ray Kurzweil). Considering all the technical advances which are heading to make a human an immortal being on the planet, devoid of diseases and sufferings, combating the process of aging and hence challenging age, is human species really thinking about the burden they are putting on the planet and nature? Is human race lost in the technical world that has closed the doors to think beyond the technology? Is human race able to justify the rule of nature? Being immortal and creating the world devoid of disorders with just touch of a button, is going to validate the

Radio Wave Propagation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Radio Wave Propagation - Essay Example So waves lose strength rapidly. [1] Radio waves travel very fast but only in a straight line. Thus the curvature of the earth should limit the distance between transmitter and receiver, a distance of about 60 miles 100 km). However, the earth's atmosphere has properties that allow enhanced propagation. The atmosphere is layered, and these layers have important effects on waves that are propagated on the earth's surface. The layer called the troposphere is a heavy, oxygen filled layer that extends from the surface to about 30 miles (50 km) altitude. From 30m (50 km) to 260m (416 km) is a highly charged layer called the ionosphere. The ionosphere affects radio signals in different ways depending on their frequencies. [2] The frequencies used for radio propagation range from 30 kHz to 3 GHz. Frequencies are continuous but are defined in bands according to their properties and uses. Higher frequencies have shorter wave lengths and more energy: LF waves are propagated as ground waves which, as the name implies, travel along the ground. Because the ground and its terrain interfere with ground waves, transmission requires lots of power. LF waves are used mainly in maritime communications over the sea and the navigational system called LORAN. [4] Sometimes ground waves suffer from a reflecting wave off the ionosphere that can return to earth out of phase near the receiver and interfere with the direct reception. MF wave frequencies are used for AM radio broadcasting. They are also ground waves and during the daylight hours are limited to a range of about 60 miles (100 km). But radio waves can be bent or refracted by changes in the earth's atmosphere particularly by weather patterns and by the ionosphere. The Ionosphere consists of the "D" (30-60 miles [50-100 km]), "E" (60-100 miles [100-160 km]), F1 (90-160 miles [144-256 km]), and the F2 (160-250 miles [256-400 km]) layers. At night, the "E" layer disappears and the F1 and F2 layers combine to form the "F" layer (somewhere between 90 and 250 miles [144-400 km]). Since the "E" layer disappears at night, the lower frequency Sky Waves (MF) travel further up into the atmosphere, where they are REFRACTED by the "F" layer[ up to 300m]. That's why at night, your radio often picks up many more AM broadcast stations! [4] HF waves have enough energy to reach the ionosphere during the day and are refracted by its various layers. Thus short-wave can travelled much further than the curvature of the earth would normally allow. This Sky Wave propagation depends strongly on the ionosphere which is in constant flux. The ionosphere is affected by many astronomical events like meteor showers and solar flares; it is also affected by seasons. Because the ionosphere changes so much, short-wave is considered unreliable for important commercial use. However, some of the effects on radio transmission are positive. These so-called anomalous propagations are of

National Response Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

National Response Plan - Assignment Example as formed, 2005, Hurricane Katrina exposed a number of problems with the National Response Plan including two issues with the Catastrophic Incident Annex. The annex was purposely established to quicken government’s upbeat response to tragic incidents, and set protocols of pre-identifying and urgently deploying essential resources incase such an incident occurs. There are two issues that significantly contributed to the political decision to overlook the implementation of the entire National Response Plan, especially the Catastrophic Incident Annex. The first one was contravenes on the role of Catastrophic Incident Annex. For instance, there were questions on whether the annex had the capability of handling catastrophic incidences of higher magnitudes like hurricane strengthening. The second one was the power and authority assigned to the Catastrophic Incident Annex. The National Response Plan did not clearly draw to what extent the Catastrophic Incident Annex was to be involved in response acceleration. For example, it was not clear whether the Annex was in a position to authorize any legal activities in case of a catastrophic event. These arguments led the public to criticize the credibility of the Annex in responding to terrorist attacks (Jenkins, 2009). In conclusion, this paper gives a clear description of the issues that led to the National Response Plan not to be implemented regardless its comprehensiveness. In this case, the main focus is on the two issues that contributed to a decision not to execute the Catastrophic Incident Annex according to Hurricane

Explain Marx's general law of capitalist accumulation and discuss it's Essay

Explain Marx's general law of capitalist accumulation and discuss it's contemporary relevance - Essay Example Though Marx does not agree with the means by which capital accumulation takes place, the identifiers that he exhibits with regards to how such a system takes place and is perpetuated is difficult to argue against regardless of the political/economic ideology that the individual may have. As a function of understanding Marx’s identification and theory of capital accumulation, this analysis will approach this topic from a historical and economic standpoint. Moreover, after seeking to define and understand the nuances of capital accumulation, as Marx describes it, the analysis will then move on to attempting to define whether or not this particular definition and understanding is applicable currently or has any contemporary relevance whatsoever. Finally, it is the hope of this author that such a discussion will not only integrate a further understanding with regards to Marx’s original intent and the means by which the Communist definition of capital accumulation was theori zed/enunciated but that this realization an understanding will seek to elaborate upon the means by which such a definition/theory continues to be relevant or is entirely irrelevant within the current era. As with so many of Karl Marx’s economic theories, it is of course first necessary to integrate with an interpretation and understanding of how Marx defined human psychology and base nature as a means of better understanding this theory and definition of capitalist accumulation. Ultimately, the writings and philosophy of Karl Marx were concentric upon an understanding that human nature as necessarily developed as a means of ensuring that humans are able to derive all of the necessary requirements for life that they may have. Not distinct from the evolutionary standpoint, Marx theory of human nature specifies that the individual, and the group for that matter, will likely seek to enrich themselves in all manners possible at all times possible (Hein, 2012). According to Marx, t his is something of an innate drive that is engaged from the moment that an individual self-actualizes until the time that they die. This primary interpretation of the motivation degree provides is a primal means by which the capital accumulation theory is defined within the Marxist worldview. Delving directly into the definition itself, Marx understood capitalism to be locked in something of a self induced death spiral. This was ultimately the result of the fact that Marx understanding of capital was a situation in which humans invariably seek after wealth and self-enrichment as a means to define their own reality. Although this in and of itself represents and unethical approach, far more unethical, according to Marx, is the reality of fact this reality invariably takes place on the backs of others. This enrichment at the expense of others has profound and severe consequences due to the fact that brutal treatment of the producers is oftentimes affected as a means of capital accrual /accumulation. In short, Marx’s concept of capital accumulation can be understood with regards to the illustration and so many economists oftentimes make with regards to t

GDP Comparisons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

GDP Comparisons - Essay Example The GDP of all 22 countries of the Arab League including West Bank and Gaza Strip is around $2.309 trillion for the year 2011(CIA fact book, 2013). The country with the highest GDP is Saudi Arabia with $587 billion. As compared to the countries of Arab League the GDP of Italy is $2.164 trillion, the GDP of France is $2.734 trillion, GDP of Germany is $3.55 trillion, GDP of United States $14.83 trillion, and GDP of Japan is $5.773 trillion for the year 2011 (CIA Fact book, 2013). Except Italy, all the countries mentioned above have a GDP that is greater than the combined GDP of all Arab League countries. The difference between Italy’s GDP and Arab League’s GDP is also very small. The GDP of West Bank and Gaza Strip is $6.64 billion, while the GDP of Israel in $239.8 billion (CIA Fact book, 2013). This comparative analysis tells us about the dominance of Western developed world over the Third World Countries of Arab. The industrial setup of Arab countries is very weak and therefore they have to rely on natural resources. Lack of local industries and inefficient governments are the main reason for such great difference between GDPs of Arab League countries and that of the developed world.

The London Riots of August of 2011 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The London Riots of August of 2011 - Essay Example One of the dangers of the news is that often rumour becomes presented as fact creating a reaction by the public that can turn to undesirable action. While the news provides an important service to the people of a nation, the reports must be accurate and ethical to have the social importance that is needed to create an informed public. Information that has been created to have the highest inflammatory effect in order to create the best possible entertainment for viewers or readers does not provide an accurate service to the public. A recent example of the dissemination of premature information that incited the public to action can be seen through the example of the riots in London during August of 2011. These riots were the result of both police action that people of the area of Tottenham found objectionable and unjust, as well as the reports made by the media that constituted rumours that had yet to be substantiated. Between the erroneous news releases and the reports on various soci al media outlets by eye witnesses who could refute the news reports, protest was made that was not met with adequate response from authorities, finally leading to riots and looting which resulted in death and destruction. In examining the reports made by the BBC and those made by The Guardian, an understanding of varying perspectives can be achieved as the outlets released news on the events that was based on how the information was that interpreted by the journalists. The following paper will first examine the background as perceived from reading various reports and written from the understanding of how those reports become a story in the mind of the reader. The news reports from the BBC will first be examined for their perspective on the riots, followed by the reports made The Guardian that can be compared to the reports from the BBC. Background During the month of August a series of riots and protested were motivated by the shooting death of a 29 year old man named Mark Duggan as attempts were made to arrest him. The incident occurred on 4 August 2011 at the Ferry Lane Bridge next to the Tottenham Hale station and was associated with Operation Trident, a police investigation into crimes associated with guns within the black community. The IPCC (Independent Police Complaints Commission) was put in charge of the investigation of the shooting according to policy after a death that occurred through police involvement. Confusion within the media occurred through erroneous statements that seemed to be intended to quell the resulting violence after the incident. In the end it is possible that the false information did nothing more than to incite a larger backlash as the inconsistencies emerged through eye-witness accounts and retractions from the police department. One of the primary problems occurred as the media was lead to believe that Duggan fired on the police where eye witnessed did not see him fire. On 6 August a peaceful protest was planned that was to be a march from the Broadwater farm to the Tottenham police

The Euro Debt Crisis and Consequences for the Developing Nations Essay

The Euro Debt Crisis and Consequences for the Developing Nations - Essay Example As an important trading block, there is no doubt that effects have already been spread elsewhere, with the developing nations having a share of the crisis. Accordingly, the global growth momentum is projected to slow down by more than one percent between the year 2010 and 2012 (IMF 8). Unemployment within the Euro zone is degenerating and surging upwards. In fact, the UK has registered a new level high in 17 years. Growth prospects are not any better in the United States with the Senate blocking Obama’s jobs bill. The euro has lost substantial ground against the dollar, whereas the Chinese Yuan has been gaining ground, a fact that has prompted the US to threaten China with trade sanctions, unless they devalue their currency. Do the less developed nations have anything to worry concerning the Euro crisis? Through what transmission mechanism could the developing nations experience the Euro zone debt crisis effects? While Germany and the UK are taking the lead in steering the Eur o zone towards a complete makeover with seemingly harsh austerity measures, especially to countries believed to be the architects of the crisis, developing countries are yet to feel the pinch of the crisis. As witnessed in the degenerative effects of the global financial crisis, the less developed nations were not hit hard mostly due to their limited financial integration with the world economy. Even though the effects delayed mostly in African countries, trade ties, capital flows, tourism, remittances from abroad, and foreign aid among other channels eventually led to a significant slowdown in these economies. Just as it was with the global financial crisis, the euro debt crisis is likely to affect the less developed nation through three main transmis ­sion channels: financial networks, fiscal consolidation within the European nations currently struggling to overcome the crisis, and through the exchange rate. While the austerity measures as well the rescue package released that h as seen a combined effort of the IMF to that of the EU are timely and may be effective, it is very unlikely that the measures will offset the impact of the crisis on European economies within a record time frame as may be envisioned by many economists (Mhango par 1). From the fiscal measures that are already being adopted in unison, the possibility that the Europe nations are headed for a slow growth phase is very likely. The immediate and direct impacts of such measure are set to become more pronounced in trade links (Kandiero and Ndikumana par 4). As shown in the diagram below, it is evident that many developing nations, mostly Africans, are dependent on the European markets. The effects of European debt crisis could also reach the developing nations through sovereign risks, arising from the declines in tax revenues. This would potentially increase the costs of borrowing due to changes in risk premiums. In particular, those countries with high fiscal deficits are relatively expose d to the risk of re-pricing of risk premiums. Already the effects are being felt in certain countries that utterly depend on exports as income generating component of their economies. The crisis is slowly cutting down demand for exports from Africa. The effect that this has will translate in difficulties of these countries in maintaining planned levels off public expenditures including infrastructural

Influence of the Personal and Professional Background Statement

Influence of the and Professional Background - Personal Statement Example I used to design PowerPoint presentations for monthly divisional gatherings with top-level manage besides supervising, coaching and training lower level staff. From January 2012-March 2012, I worked as the Registration coordinator and public relations assistant in Doha International Maritime Defense Exhibition and Conference. While in this position, I organized events, acted as a link between our company and the governmental body, assisted at the lounge of Qatar Armed Forces chief staffs, recruited, oriented, and trained volunteers. From January 2011- December 2011 I served as the executive assistant to the project director of 20th World Petroleum Congress (QMDI (QF JV) & Qatar Petroleum). I managed the organization's information and communications apart from supervising and training clerical staff. August –December 2010 I worked as the administrator and human resource coordinator of Qatar Real Estate partners and Qatar Sotheby’s International Realty where I helped in t he resolution of specific disciplinary as an arbitrator between the manager and employee. From sep.2006-sep. 2008, I was the cabin attendant for the Qatar Airways Airline-Doha Qatar with chief responsibility of ensuring safety and security among other duties. I have also been a sales executive at Bin Hindi Est. Hugo Boss-Baldessarini in Dubai from ec.2005 –Aug.2006. Aug.2005-1ug.2005 I worked as the retail advisor for Wanadoo France telecom in Tunisia. Educationally, I have certificates in teamwork skills, English business communication, executive secretarial skills cabin attendant from Qatar civil aviation, safety, security and air restraint. I have had recommendations from various personalities recognizing me as extremely creative, smart Microsoft office operation, reliable, ambitious, and elegantly professional.

Comment closely on the following poem Essay Example for Free

Comment closely on the following poem Essay The Self-Unseeing portrays Hardy reminiscing over his childhood life with his parents. In the first stanza, the setting their old house is described in a way that conveys a sense of age and weariness, through such words and phrases as ‘ancient’ (emphasizing the age), ‘footworn and hollowed and thin’ (alluding to the emptiness which has overtaken it through the passage of time after it has been abandoned), ‘former’ (revealing the extent of change in the house, eg. by the door no longer being there), and ‘dead feet’ (those of his parents). At this point in the poem Hardy speaks in the present tense from the outside of the house, in order to convey its emptiness to the reader. The second stanza ignores these aspects of the house, instead focusing on his memories of his parents, which contrast with the first stanza by filling the house with life and action. A happier mood is created here, through a sense of warmth created by the fire, and his mother’s smile, which, along with his father’s playing the violin (‘bowing it higher and higher’), shows the happiness he felt while living with his parents. The musical effect of the violin is also complemented by that of the smooth-flowing ‘abab‘ rhyme scheme. The present tense verbs ‘smiling’ and ‘bowing’ imply that these memories were vivid, as if by introducing the setting to the reader he is reliving them. Hardy’s reference to his parents using the pronouns ‘she’ and ‘he’ rather than their actual names transforms the personal tragedy of the death of his parents to a universal one to which the reader can more easily relate. However, this tragedy is buried beneath the warm, welcoming mood established by the aforementioned use of language in this stanza. Hardy illuminates these memories in the final stanza with light imagery ‘blessings’ (which tend to be associated with heaven and therefore light), ‘day’, ‘glowed’, ‘gleam’, which underscore the joyful feelings previously evoked. This use of light imagery serves as a metaphor to reveal how Hardy, ‘childlike’, ‘danced in a dream’, and overall, the diction shows that his memories had a dazzling and pensive quality. However, it can be seen from the concluding line, ‘Yet we were looking away! ’, that he feels remorseful for not fully appreciating what he had at the time. It is this line which gives meaning to the poem’s title he (the ‘self’) was ‘unseeing’ and could not see the true value of his life with his parents. This makes the light imagery all the more powerful, as Hardy uses it to show that he is now able to see what he was unable to in his childhood. His newfound appreciation for his memories is also evident in the first stanza, where ‘here is’ and ‘here was’ sorrowfully reveal the setting of which he is about to reminisce. Overall, Hardy’s memories are presented in this poem with both regret and happiness. The phrase ‘hollowed and thin’ in the first stanza, in light of this regret, describes the likely state of his soul following the loss of his parents. The regret is subtle at first, but becomes much more apparent after reading the last line; it is as if Hardy uses this line to allow the reader to look back (as he had looked back on his past) and be filled with regret through this reflection. The past-tense verbs ‘walked’, ‘sat’, and ‘stood’, which are simply describing what once was, become tinged with regret (as if mourning) upon a second glance. In contrast, the passive verbs ‘danced’, ‘emblazoned’, and ‘glowed’ preserve their cheerful connotations, which suggest that to Hardy, reminiscence is a bittersweet experience. This idea is supported by the structure of the poem: three quatrains with ‘abab’ rhyme schemes; although the rhyme scheme establishes a sense of reminiscence, there are emotions both positive and negative associated with it. The simple pattern of it also mirrors the simplicity and naivety of childhood. The structure, rhythm, and diction of the poem thus convey a powerful message that pleasant experiences will eventually become memories, carrying both the happiness of their past occurrence and the regret and sadness of knowing that their time is past.

Boeing Corporation Essay Example for Free

Boeing Corporation Essay From Boeing Corporate Structure (Chart 1), it shows Chairman, Executive President and Chief Executive Officer, which is represented by one individual to be responsible for Executive Vice President who also acts as Chief Financial Officer and is responsible for finance department while the president is responsible for International matter. Executive Vice President is also responsible and in charge of six other Senior Vice- Principals who in turn in charge of different departments such as law, business development and strategy, human resources and administration, communication, and internal governance. From the production management side, Boeing’s Business Development and Strategy is operating under two units, which are Boeing Commercial Airplanes and Boeing Integrated Defense Systems. Supporting these two units are Boeing Capital Corporation, Boeing Shared Services Group, and Engineering, Operations Technology, Aircraft Financial Services and Space Defense Financial Services. From Boeing Corporate Organizational Structure, it describes that the Aircraft Financial Services â€Å"assists commercial aircraft customers by arranging and structuring asset-based financing, managing technical assets, and providing a broad range of efficient financing solutions for Boeing Commercial Airplanes products and services†¦ provides expertise and product offerings include backstop commitments, operating leases, financing leases, sale/leasebacks, freighter conversion financing, long- and short-term financing, and senior and subordinated secured loans. Under the charge of its vice president and general manager, again the structure describes â€Å"Aircraft Financial Services works closely with Boeing Commercial Airplanes customers to develop aircraft financing solutions. Working with commercial financial institutions, the group is proactively engaged with the U. S. Export-Import Bank and other export credit agencies to ensure availability of adequate and reasonably priced financing for developing customers and regions. Aircraft Financial Services is playing an integral role, along with the Aviation Working Group, in improving the global aircraft financing infrastructure and ratifying the Cape Town Treaty, which will improve the legal framework for international asset-based aircraft financing. The group also is actively engaged to enhance and expand the capital markets. † The Space Defense Financial Services, on the contrary, arranges and structures financing solutions for government and commercial customers around the world. Vice President of the financial corporation â€Å"and his group work closely with Boeings Integrated Defense Systems business unit to help arrange funding for satellites, military transports, tankers and rotorcraft. Specialized projects and programs include military-related products, international defense financing, private-public partnerships, project financing, launch vehicles, satellites and related space systems. † The value creation in the company’s capital business unit is based upon â€Å"discriminating financing solution† with a primary mission is to arrange, structure, and provide financial assistance for the sale and delivery of Boeing products and services to other business units. It also aggressively solicits and arranges third party financing for its customers as well as manages its finance and financial risk properly. Boeing recognizes the diverse and highly skilled workforces who have great contribution to its success and has led the company to lead the world as the â€Å"world’s second largest† commercial and defense aircrafts. The people culture represents a lifelong learning experience. The diversity of the people also determines the culture of the company, which is for some, it is refreshing. From human development perspective, Boeing provides an opportunity for its employees to improve their skills through company-paid tuition program, through Boeing Leadership Center, and a continuous learning through other programs outside the company so that employees can â€Å"pursue studies in unlimited fields and environments† According to Boeing, its success is driven by its â€Å"ability to provide our customers with the right solutions at the right time and the right cost,† more effective in addressing â€Å"future evolving requirements for capability-driven solutions,† and is able to further â€Å"improve execution, reduce organizational complexity, and improve competitiveness† for its customers. In its Philanthropy Report, Boeing claims its â€Å"commitment to being a good corporate citizen. In fact, good corporate citizenship is a core value of our company and is integral to the way we conduct business around the globe. In addition to this being a social imperative for us, we see improving the quality of life in communities where we live and work as a key element to remaining viable and vital in today’s global marketplace† (2). Executive members are engaging in the activity of several nonprofit organizations including in college and university while employees are engaging in volunteer activities and other community programs. The company continues expanding as it generates new innovations. With expansion, its capabilities and capacity also increase, from human resources development to â€Å"more efficient members of its commercial airplane family; integrating military platforms, defense systems and the war fighter through network-centric operations; creating advanced technology solutions; providing broadband connectivity on moving platforms including airplanes; and arranging innovative customer-financing solutions. † The company boasts of its management and leadership success in the field of commercial aircraft and integrated defense system. Its strategy is to provide â€Å"the right people for the right job, technologies, processes and performance at the right time and in the right place across the company worldwide. † And to take a leadership role by creating a primary supports to its business units through several organizational groups such as Phantom Works, Intellectual Property Management, and Information Technology, as well as in the Engineering, Operations, Quality, and Information Technology process councils. According to Boeing, â€Å"through all its activities, Engineering, Operations Technology helps ensure the future success of Boeing by winning strategic new programs, providing innovative technology and process solutions, transforming Boeing into a global network-centric enterprise, enhancing and protecting the companys intellectual capital, and fostering a culture of innovation. † Looking at its success, Boeing has had great strategies but the recent strategy of cost management has impacted the company, especially employees downsizing. This will eventually affected the company’s future performance as the second of the world’s leaders in aircraft industry. Expansion increases cost but one best thing is to keep its specialty. The only strategy I would suggest for Boeing to maintain its healthy organizational is to reduce its expansive activity, such as investor’s outreach program or realty activity, while maintaining its human resources. Corporate executives’ compensation should also be taken into consideration because no executives are successful without the employees.

Snow White And The Huntsman Film Studies Essay

Snow White And The Huntsman Film Studies Essay In the epic action-adventure starts out with (Kristen Stewart) who plays the only person in the land fairer than the evil queen, her name, snow white. While the film offers an appropriately exciting take on the fairy tale that inspired it, Snow White and the Huntsman is slow at the beginning of the movie with a confused script that jumps around a bit. Thirty minutes into the film it starts to pick up with its first action war scene against the Dark Army, an assaulting force of glass fighters. The film offers wonderful digital effects during this scheme with the soldiers shattering when struck by swords. Ravenna (the evil queen) seizes control of the entire kingdom, locks snow white up and years pass. More drama begins to unfold as age starts to affect the Queen. In order to sustain and preserve her beauty, the Queen must draw out the essence of youth from young women. The Queen also consults with a digitally animated Magic Mirror, that very interesting to watch. As the story begins to pick up, the Mirrors informes the Queen that Snow White is predestined to destroy her unless she devours the young girls heart. At this point the huntsman is introduced; his name is Eric, a widower who has lived in the Dark Forest, is taken to Queen. She orders him to lead her brother, Finn to search for Snow White. In exchange, she assures him that she can revive his deceased wife, Sarah. The next few action scenes have high intensity with a lot of digital affects within the scary forest full of nightmares to an enormous, drooling, angry goblin thats out to eat anyone that enters his valley. The visual effects continue as they travel through the fairy sanctuary where the fairies and animals alike dwell in harmony. The guides for Snow white and the huntsman are hefty, stocky dwarves who were snow whites loyal friends. The actors who played these dwarfs caught me off guard while watching the film. It seems the movie producer passed over little people for the roles of the seven dwarfs.   Full-sized British actors such as  Ian McShane, Bob Hoskins and Ray Winstone played the roles and were shrunk using digital manipulation and had their faces digitally transmuted onto small the bodies. This took away from the realization of the seven dwarfs if you recognize any of the actors playing the seven dwarfs. I would like to have seen more of the seven dwarfs and I feel they w ere slightly under used. The location of the movie took place in the beautiful United Kingdom. Some of the beach scenes were filmed near the village of Marloes which gives the movie a darker feel. The classic Snow White fairytale was set in Germany and the movie showed these German features throughout the movie. The shape of the castle, the design of the village cottages, and the dark forest which represented Germanys Black Forest brought the classic story to life. The music that was created for the movie was outstanding. It really lifted the film and stood out over the chaos of the battle scenes. The background voice that was used created tension in all the right places, and moved me to the point that I wanted to cry during the dwarfs duet.  The costumes made for the Queen were spectacular. The dresses represented power and elegance with a touch of armor for battle as the story unfolded. I would have no problem seeing it again even though I know the ending. All in all this movie was money well spent. I would whole heartedly recommend this film. It has really given the kiss of life to the fairy tale classic, breathing new air into a new way of storytelling. The acting was well done except for Kristen Stewart playing snow-white. I would have no problem seeing watching this movie again or buying it on DVD.

Essay --

What’s better: Fast Food vs. Healthy Food? Although today, the vast majority would argue that eating healthier foods would be more advantageous to one’s health, the question is whether it is conducive to the faster pace lifestyle of today’s individual and family? Today’s family dynamic is normally made up of two hardworking individuals with equally busy children. For each individual and family members, we know that a healthy lifestyle is dependent on plenty of exercise and nutritious foods. Advertisers for health and diet foods retailers sell a variety of healthy foods to help customers stick to their diets. Products can range from supplements and vitamins to vegetables and protein. Some health and diet foods can be found in supermarkets. Usually they have their own aisle, and are coupled with the organics section. They can also be found in the fruits and vegetables sections. But many health and diet foods have their own specialty shops aimed at getting people to lose fat, inches, and weight. Losing excess weight and improving your overall health via exercise and wise eating cho... Essay -- What’s better: Fast Food vs. Healthy Food? Although today, the vast majority would argue that eating healthier foods would be more advantageous to one’s health, the question is whether it is conducive to the faster pace lifestyle of today’s individual and family? Today’s family dynamic is normally made up of two hardworking individuals with equally busy children. For each individual and family members, we know that a healthy lifestyle is dependent on plenty of exercise and nutritious foods. Advertisers for health and diet foods retailers sell a variety of healthy foods to help customers stick to their diets. Products can range from supplements and vitamins to vegetables and protein. Some health and diet foods can be found in supermarkets. Usually they have their own aisle, and are coupled with the organics section. They can also be found in the fruits and vegetables sections. But many health and diet foods have their own specialty shops aimed at getting people to lose fat, inches, and weight. Losing excess weight and improving your overall health via exercise and wise eating cho...

Lord of the Flies Essay -- Literary Analysis, William Golding

Nature or nurture? A question frequently asked but hard to answer or prove. This is where William Golding steps in. He writes a novel about a group of schoolboys stranded on an island, fighting to survive. Instead of acting how they have been taught by society, they turn into a disaster, breaking up into separate groups, having celebrations to hunt pig, and killing each other. In Lord of the Flies, William Golding, inspired by The Coral Island and Paradise Lost, shows the true nature of human beings in a society created by children. The novel, Lord of the Flies, comes from William Golding’s personal experiences. In 1953, Golding asked his wife, Ann, if she thought it would be a good idea if he wrote a book about the mess boys with no parents would make on an island. She responded that she liked the idea, so Golding sat down and started writing his first novel (Tiger 22). As he started writing this novel, Golding remembered when he had served in the Royal Army during World War II. Those five years taught Golding what humans were actually capable and willing to do. They are also responsible for first interesting him in the evil within humans and barbarism (â€Å"Golding†). Although Golding got many of his themes from what he had witnessed, he also based his plot from a few of his previous readings. Lord of the Flies is considered to be William Golding’s response to R.M. Ballantyne’s, The Coral Island. Like Lord of the Flies, Ballantyne’s novel is based on a group of boys who get shipwrecked and end up stranded on a coral reef island. Although, in The Coral Island the boys make the best of the situation they are in and lead a happy, organized life. Golding calls his novel a â€Å"kind of black mass or realistic view of the situation† (Bu... ... ignoring his other ones. In response to this, Golding wrote the essay â€Å"Fable† to answer questions he received constantly (Wood 316). The book also â€Å"inspired two films, was translated into 26 languages, sold millions of copies, and became a standard on college and high school reading lists† (Lambert 317). Moreover, Nigel Williams, an actor produced a theatrical adoption from the book. The title of the novel was even used to name the killing or mass murder of children (Tiger 23). To sum it all up, in Lord of the Flies, William Golding shows that he believes in nature over nurture. Although his novel did receive negative reviews, it turned out to be a very successful novel. Lord of the Flies continues to be famous and studied world-wide. His wording, themes, realistic views, symbolism and writing overall continue to attract and interest more readers to his writing.

Essay --

The recognition of same-sex marriage is a political, social, and religious issue. Because of this same-sex marriage is a very controversial topic. Legal acknowledgement of same sex marriage is commonly referred to as marriage equality. Many advocates of marriage equality argue that laws restricting marriage to only heterosexuals discriminate against homosexuals. On the other hand advocates against same-sex marriage argue that it would undo long-standing traditions and change the meaning of marriage in a damaging manor. In this essay I will be arguing for same-sex marriage. The arguments mentioned as well as others will be discusses throughout this paper. Firstly I will discuss the reasons for marriage equality. I argue marriage equality is in the best interest for family life. Allowing homosexuals to form stable committed relationships through marriage would allow for healthier homosexual relationships. You can’t prevent people from being homosexual however giving those people the right to marry can help them experience greater personal happiness. Studies have suggested that not only does legalizing marriage in an area generally make homosexual individuals in that area happier; it also makes them physically and mentally healthier and saves them money on health care (Hatzenbuehler, O’Cleirigh, Grasso, Mayer, Safren, & Bradford, 20012). I don’t see any compelling reason to take away the joy homosexuals get from marriage, this is one of the many reasons I support marriage equality. Marriage naturally creates families; it provides the conditions for a healthy environment that is beneficial to the upbringing of children. Opponents of same-sex marriage often ground their arguments on parental and religious concerns. Many argue that sa... ...me-sex marriage. However marriage is not solely defined as a relationship between a man and a woman. The definition of marriage has varied throughout history. Depending heavily on religious and political views of an individual society. Quote and quote changing the meaning of marriage would not damage the meaning a marriage. It would still be the same binding contract that it is today. In conclusion I argue that banning same-sex marriage is discriminatory. It is discriminatory because it denies homosexuals the many benefits received by heterosexual couples. The right to marriage in the United States has little to do with the religious and spiritual meaning of marriage. It has a lot to do with social justice, extending a civil right to a minority group. This is why I argue for same-sex marriage. The freedom to marry regardless of gender preference should be allowed.

Identifying Macromolecules in Common Foods Essay

Abstract: We tested five common food items to determine which macromolecules were present. We tested for the macromolecules of simple and complex carbohydrates (sugars and starch), lipids, and proteins. The foods tested were coconut milk, karo syrup, potato chips, peanut butter, and banana baby food. We hypothesized that coconut milk would contain all four types of macromolecules, karo syrup would only contain simple sugars which are monosaccharides and/or disaccharides, potato chips would contain starches and fats, peanut butter would contain sugars, fats, and proteins, and banana baby food would consist of sugars and starch. Each macromolecule test consisted of five test tubes of the food item individually diluted into solutions for reacting each with Benedict’s reagent to show the presence of sugar, IK2I for starch presence, and Buiret’s reagent for protein presence. A simple paper test was used evaluting lipid existence for each food. Our results confirmed our estimations of the foods’ compounds. The testing results verified that coconut milk contained all four types of macromolecules, karo syrup contain only simple sugars, potato chips were starches and fats, peanut butter contained sugars, fats, and proteins, and banana baby food consisted of sugars and starches. Introduction: Identifying macromolecules in the foods we eat is essential in comprising a healthy well-rounded diet ensuring our nutritional needs for cellular processes in the human body. The largest biological molecules are known as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Carbohydrates are compounds of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides known as sugars and starches. Lipids, known as fats, are storage molecules in animals and plants. Proteins bind to other molecules performing key roles in DNA and RNA functions. Five different food items were tested for the presence of specific macromolecules identified as sugars, starch, lipids, and proteins. The food items were coconut milk, karo syrup, potato chips, peanut butter, and banana baby food. We used chemical indicators and brown paper to detect the presence of different macromolecules in various solutions made from each food sample. If sugars were present in a food, then the Benedict’s reagent and heat would turn the solution orange and precipitate will form. If starch was present, then the iodine potassium iodide would turn the solution dark purple or brown and form a precipitate. If lipids were present in a food, then the brown paper it was rubbed onto would form a transparent area. If a food contains protein, then the Buiret’s reagent would turn the solution violet or purple in color. Our observations of the changes to the solutions in color and consistency indicated the presence of each different macromolecule according to the food item (see Table 1, Chart 1). We predicted that coconut milk would contain sugars, starch, lipids and proteins; karo syrup would only be a simple sugar; potato chips were made of starch and lipids; peanut butter would contain sugars, lipids, and proteins; and banana baby food would only contain sugars and starch. Materials and Methods: We tested five food items for sugars, starch, lipids, and protein. The items tested were cocunut milk, karo syrup, potato chips, peanut butter, and banana baby food. All of these food items were thick in consistence. Also, several of the foods had heavy coloring which would make some of the tests difficult to visually measure. Solutions were made of each food item. Our lab professor dilute the foods with water to form solutions for us to test. According to our lab manual, The Pearson Custom Library for the Biological Sciences, chapter Macromolecules, the testing methods are as follows (reference II). Before any testing chemicals or testing procedures were performed, the intial states and colors of the food solutions were as follows: the negative control water was clear and colorless; coconut milk was opaque and white; karo syrup solution was completely transparent and colorless; potato chip solution was cloud and slightly yellow; peanut butter solution was cloudy and slightly beige; banana baby food solution was cloudy and slightly yellowish beige. Simple Carbohydrates (Sugar) Testing: Using Benedict’s testing on our food items, we tested for simple sugars. Six clean test tubes were labeled individually with each testing food item plus one negative control test tube. Solutions of each food item in the quantity of one full dropperful was added to each labeled test tube and one full dropperful of water was added to the control tube. Then, each test tube received one full dropperful of Benedict’s reagent and was gently shaken to mix the solution. Each test tube was then placed in a hot water bath in a beaker of water on a hot plate for approximately 2 minutes. After approximately 2 minutes, the test tubes were removed from the water and placed into the test tube rack for us to observe any changes to the solutions. The resulting states and colors of the test tubes were as follows: The negative control water was clear and blue in color; coconut milk was opaque with a dark orange precipitate in the bottom and orange through the rest of its solution; karo syrup was opaque with a dark orange precipitate in the bottom and orange throughout its solution; potato chips solution remained cloudy with no precipitate and was blue in solution; peanut butter solution was opaque with a brown precipitate in the bottom and brown through its solution; and the banana baby food solution was opaque, dark brown in color and formed a dark brown precipitate in the bottom of the test tube. Complex Carbohydrates (Starch) Testing: Iodine potassium iodide (IK2I) was used to test for polysaccarides. Six clean test tubes were labeled and placed in a test tube rack. Five of the test tubes were individually labeled with each of our five food items and one test tube was labeled â€Å"control†. The control test tube one full dropperful of water, the other five test tubes received their identified food item in the quantity of one full dropperful. Then, one droplet of the IK2I reagent was added to each of the six test tubes and were mixed well. The resulting states and colors of the test tubes were as follows: The negative control water was clear and yellow amber in color; coconut milk formed a dark brown precipitate and an opaque solution color of violet-beige; karo syrup remained translucent and deep amber in color; potato chips solution formed a dark purple precipitate with an opaque solution color of purple; peanut butter solution remained cloudy and yellow in color; and the banana baby food solution formed a purple brown precipitate and an opaque solution of pinkish beige. Lipid Testing: We performed a non-coated paper test on our chosen food items to identify the presence of lipids. Six squares of non-coated brown paper were obtained and labeled with the five food items to be tested and one control paper labeled â€Å"water†. The control paper received a droplet of water rubbed into the paper. Each of the five separate foods were added and rubbed onto the center of each of their identified brown paper. The papers were set aside for 30 minutes to absorb the contents and dry. After the 30 minutes, each paper was held towards the overhead light. The coconut milk, potato chips, and peanut butter papers all showed translucent areas where the food was applied. The Karo syrup and the banana baby food dried completely and showed no translucent areas, being completely opaque in their paper centers. Protein Testing: The Biuret’s test was performed on each of our five food items to identify the presence of protein in the foods. Six clean test tubes were labeled and placed in a test tube rack. Five of the test tubes were individually labeled with each of our five food items and one test tube was labeled â€Å"control†. The control test tube had one full dropperful of water, the other five test tubes received their identified food item in the quantity of one full dropperful. Then we added one full dropperful of of buiret’s reagent to each of the test tubes, agitated the tubes to mix thoroughly, and observed any changes. The resulting states and colors of the test tubes were as follows: The negative control water was clear and light blue in color; coconut milk was opaque and violet-brown; karo syrup remained translucent with slightly blue solution color; potato chips solution remained cloudy and turned more slightly grayish in color; peanut butter solution was opaque and became pinkish in color; and the banana baby food solution was opaque and turned brownish slightly green color. Results: Coconut milk tested positive for sugar indicated by a dark orange precipitate forming and an orange solution. Coconut milk tested positive for starch as it formed a brown precipitate with a beige colored solution. Coconut milk tested positive for lipids as the paper developed transparency. Coconut milk tested positive for proteins by resulting in an opaque, violet-brown solution. Karo syrup tested positive for sugar by exhibiting a dark orange precipitate and an orange solution. Karo syrup tested negative for starch, lipids, and proteins as there was no resulting changes. Potato chips tested positive for starch by producing a dark purple precipitate and a purple solution. Potato chips tested positive for lipids forming transparency on the testing paper. Potato chips tested negative for sugars and proteins indicated by no trend changes to their solutions. Peanut butter tested positive for sugar forming a brown precipitate and a brown solution. Peanut butter tested positive for lipids by developing transparency on the testing paper. Peanut butter tested positive for protein by resulting in a pinkish beige solution. Peanut butter tested negative for starch as the solutuion remained yellow in color. The banana baby food tested positive for sugar resulting in a dark brown precipitate and dark brown solution. Banana baby food tested positive for starch by resulting a brown precipitate and a pink-beige solution. Banana baby food tested negative for lipids and proteins observing no trending changes. Discussion: Our results supported our hypotheses and predictions developed from our previous exposure to these foods with knowledge of taste, texture and common dietary information. Coconut milk contained sugars, starch, lipids and proteins; karo syrup contained simple sugars; potato chips contain starch and lipids; peanut butter contained sugars, lipids, and proteins; and banana baby food contained sugars and starch (see Table 1 and Chart 1). According to Functional Properties of Food Macromolecules, Second Edition (reference IV), Benedict’s reagent is a clear, blue liquid used to test for simple sugars such as monosaccharides and disaccharides. When Benedict’s reagent and simple carbohydrates are heated together, the solution will turn color to orange red. This color change is caused by the copper (II) ions in the reagent are reduced to copper (I) ions. Sometimes a reddish precipitate forms in the base of the test tube. Information provided by Science and Health Education Partnership, SEP Lessons by University of California San Francisco (reference III) details that Buiret’s reagent is a clear, blue liquid that when in the presence of proteins will change to a purple or even pink color when the copper atoms of the reagent react with proteins or polypeptide chains. Iodine solution or Lugol’s reagent changes from an amber color to dark purple of even black. Due to the original coloring of the foods, the resulting color changes and formed precipitates were adjusted according to the mixture of the reacting coloring. For examples, the peanut butter and banana baby food both were an original brown color so as they reacted with Benedict’s reagent and were heated they resulted in a darker brown color as the common orange reacting color mixed with their original brown coloring. These brown colorings were taken into consideration as we reviewed the ending reactions to justify a positive or negative identification. References Cited: I. Molecular Biology Initiative. Georgia Southern University, GA. http://cosm.georgiasouthern.edu/biology/mbi/activities/Macromolecules%20in%20food/Macromolecules%20in%20food%20activity.pdf. Accessed February 11, 2013. II. Pearson Learning Solutions. â€Å"Macromolecules,† in The Pearson Custom Library for the Biological Sciences. Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2012, pp. 69-87. III. Science and Health Education Partnership, SEP Lessons. University of California San Francisco. http://seplessons.ucsf.edu/node/362. Accessed February 11, 2013. IV. S.E. Hill, D.A. Ledward, and J.R. Mitchell. Functional Properties of Food Macromolecules, Second Edition. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishing, 1998.

Theories on Criminal Behavior

There ar many theories that digest an explanation of turn way. match to just about theories, tatterdemalion doings is innate in an respective(prenominal). Other theories say that crime is influenced by environ mental, economic, and psychological aspects (University of northern Texas, nd). Biological Theories fit in to the biological theories, miserables prevail a disparate physiological makeup from non- reprehensibles. Their biological execrable quality is what pushes them to resort to criminal activities.There had been multiple studies that attempts to reveal out if criminality is hereditary by analysis of family trees, identical and fraternal twins, statistics, and become children. However, these plan of attackes put superstar across proved futile be earn they feces non contend hereditary from environmental influences (University of nitrogen Texas, nd). contemporary researches, on the other hand, has discovered a wide array of biological factors that pis s direct or indirect confederacy with criminal or delinquent activities.Among them be lack of chemicals, minerals, and vitamins in the food they eat, scratch line and carbohydrates-rich food, and hypoglycemia. Exposure to radiation, dysfunctions in the brain, and swal hap slighting of food dyes and go past also play an important aim in criminal behaviors. Likewise, criminal acts have something to do with hormonal abnormalities, particularly those that be connected with testoster unmatched (the male sex horm iodine) and progester ane and estrogen (the sex hormones related to female). By injecting estrogen to male sex offenders would decrease their sexual drives(University of labor union Texas, nd).In addition, biological theorists in like manner believe that the interplay of biological, environmental and social conditions can have an effect on criminal behavior. The genetic makeup of the criminal gives them a predisposition to act in a certain manner. The environmental and s ocial conditions determines the certain behavior as tumesce as the commentary of that act(University of trades union Texas, nd). Psychological Theories The impression that criminal behavior is caused by low intelligence gained ground in the unify States.In order to prove this view, a involve was conducted in 1931 and reached a zero correlation in the midst of the intelligence of an individual and criminal behavior(University of northwards Texas, nd). According to Sigmund Freuds psychoanalytic theory, criminal behaviors atomic number 18 associated with psychopaths or those who have internal problems that have been unresolved. Psychopaths are deal who are rules by senseless guilt, unverifiable conscience, and no do not have a go at it how to distinguish right from wrong. In general, they fall out it hard to establish relationships with other spate and do not know how to be emphatic(University of North Texas, nd).Sociological TheoriesAccording to sociologists, how pack behave is immovable by the social group as well as the social structure. The conditions of their clubhouse whitethorn cause them to commit crimes and delinquency(University of North Texas, nd).Sub-cultural Theory of DelinquencyIn the 1920s, the Chicago School, composed of sociologists, seek to discover the connection betwixt the crime rate of a confederation and its characteristics. According to this theory, social disorganization can take vest in a similarity where the rate of delinquency is high.Social disorganization takes place when1) in that respect is absence of delinquency influence2) the criminal behavior is most of the cartridge holder with the consent of parents as well as the community3) the opportunity for delinquency presents itself 4) there is minimal encouragement, training, or possibility for licit employment(University of North Texas, nd).Anomie TheoryThis theory was proposed by Robert Merton in 1938. Anomie explains the major difference in the midst o f the cultural objectives and social structure of the fall in States. People experience strain as a result of their limited access code to effectual means of achieving riches.In order to bang up with this inadequacy, people accumulate wealth through illegal modes as well as through conformity. Other forms of adaptation, correspond to the anomie theory, include ritualism, wherein the individual does not pursue the wealth actively, and rebellion, where the individual does not accept both the goal of the wealth as well as the legal means of obtaining it(University of North Texas, nd).Differential AssociationThis theory, introduced by Edwin Sutherland, is one of the major beliefs that explains the causes of criminal behavior.According to Sutherland, criminal behavior takes place because the delinquent individual has been endangered to criminal elements and isolated from anti-criminal patterns(University of North Texas, nd).Social learning TheoryAccording to the principles of l earning theory, the best way to approach criminality is to implement policies that would effectively retaliate criminals. Sadly, this is not being implemented in the United States. At present, the delinquent individual is usually not incarcerated and returned to the same community where they have been exposed to criminal behavior.Likewise, the regularity of punishment lacks consistency and is not forthwith implemented. Alternative or prosocial behaviors is not rewarded with collateral reinforcement(University of North Texas, nd).Social Control TheoryThe social give theory does not attempt to uncover the cases wherefore criminal behavior is connected but rather focuses on why people conform and accept these behaviors(University of North Texas, nd). Travis Hirschi, in his 1969 book Causes of Delinquency, provides a complete presentation of contemporary social discover theory.In his book, Hirschi concluded that delinquent behavior is plausibly unless the offender is exposed in a society that is characterized by attachment to other people, commitment to traditional means of action, affaire in usual activities, and concurrence to lesson order and law(University of North Texas, nd). Moreover, Hirschi explained that the leading cause of delinquency is ineffective child rearing, which results to individuals with low self- determine(University of North Texas, nd).Labeling TheoryThis theory places emphasis on the criminalization process itself as the reason for some crimes.The criminalization process refers to the definition of criminals and delinquent behavior. According to the labeling theory, the first sequence a person commits a delinquent act and gets punished by the criminal system, they are already viewed as a criminal and it eventually becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy(University of North Texas, nd).Conflict TheoryThis theory delves on the struggle between rich and poor, management and employees, majority and nonage group. According to the conflic t theory, society involves conflicts between rival interest groups and that the law and nicety system functions in order to control subordinate groups.Crime results from the lack of power(University of North Texas, nd).Radical/ red ink TheoryAccording to this theory, capitalism demands competition of people in order to gain material wealth. Because of the pettish distribution of wealth, people have interpreted advantage of people who are less powerful than them as they accumulate wealth(University of North Texas, nd). According to the radical theory, criminal behavior is caused by what Marx calls class struggle (University of North Texas, nd).Real Life Cases of Criminal Behavior For a period of two years, FBI Special divisor Robert Hazelwood and Janet Warren from the University of Virginias nominate of Psychiatry and Law conducted interviews of 41 men who were convicted for the muff of 837 victims. Based on the interviews, 55-61% of the criminals perpetrate premeditated rape during the first, middle, and final act. 15 22% of the criminals said that their acts were results of their impulse eyepatch 22 24% said that the opportunity to rape presented itself(Hazelwood & Warren, 1990).According to Janet Warren from the University of Virginia, there are systems of sexual attacks on women. The first one is called the con approach. In this method, the raper openly talks to their victims and asks if they can do anything to serve up them. As soon as the victim is within their control, that is the time they perpetrate their roughshod plans. This was the case used by one of the interviewed rapists named John, who was responsible for raping 20 victims(Hazelwood & Warren, 1990). The second method used by rapist is the blitz.Here the rapist forciblely assaults their victims by using chemicals or gases. Most of the times, however, they use their strength to submerge the woman. This was the case of 28 year-old Phil, who raped one of his victims in a vehicle(Haz elwood & Warren, 1990). Finally, the third method is the surprise. In this approach, the rapist pre-selects their would-be victim. The physical assault is perpetrated by the offender waiting for the woman. Weapons, such as guns or knives, as well as threats are conglomerate in the surprise approach. 24-year old surface-to-air missile chooses his victims by observing her patterns.He was able to rape 20 victims before he was caught(Hazelwood & Warren, 1990).ConclusionThere are many theories that explain the reasons why people resort to criminal behaviors. The causes of criminality may be psychological, social, or biological.ReferencesExplaining Crime. University of North Texas. Retrieved July 21 2008 from http//www. unt. edu/cjus/Course_Pages/CJUS_2100/2100chapter3. pptHazelwood, R. , & Warren, J(February 1990). The Criminal Behavior of the Serial Rapist. Holysmoke. Org. Retrieved July 21 2008 from http//www. holysmoke. org/fem/fem0126. htm